Breast-Fed Babies May Have Longer Telomeres, Tied to Longevity

There are many positive outcome when breast-feeding a baby during their first six weeks of life, for example a child will develop a healthier immune system. Studies have shown when babies are beast- fed they tend to have a longer telomeres. A telomeres is a structure that lies at the end of a chromosome and secures the genes from any harm. It has been proven that when an individual develop a shorter telomere there is an occurrence of a chronic disease during their adulthood, but individual with longer telomeres will have a longer and healthier life. Researchers are yet to conclude whether telomeres are developed when consuming breast milk during their first six weeks or these structures are already developed at birth.

http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/08/04/breast-fed-babies-may-have-longer-telomeres-tied-to-longevity/

http://www.onecoox.com/5225/well-breastfed-babies-may-have-longer-telomeres-bound-longevity/

"Mama Dolphins Sing Their Name to Babies in the Womb"

New reasearch suggests that mother dolphins sing their own name to babies in the womb slightly before and up to two weeks after birth. Its the human equivalent of teaching your child to say "mama". Eventually after a few weeks baby dolphins, called calves, also develop a signiture whitsle of their own. Interestingly enough no other dolphin increases the rate of their signiture whistle at any point in the calves development. This is thought to be so that the calf has a definite preference for the moms whistle. This is also interesting because other studies have shown that in utero and in weeks after birth human babies are particularly respinsive to the mothers voice.
(Picture below from http://www.livescience.com/55699-mother-dolphins-teach-babies-signature-whistle.html)

"Gene Therapy Will Cure You, or Your Money Back!"

For the first time ever, doctors in Italy are offering commercial gene therapy to people inflicted with rare diseases. The procedures come with a hefty price tag, but are guaranteed to work - or your money back!

The treatment is called Strimvelis, and it is the first outright cure for the autoimmune disease ADA-SCID, that leaves newborn babies with almost no defense against viruses, bacteria, or fungi, and is often fatal. This same disease was documented in the 1976 movie Bubble Boy about an American child who lived his life inside a plastic bubble.

Strimvelis uses a virus to deploy a missing gene into the bone marrow of afflicted children, allowing the stem cells within the marrow to naturally produce the proper immune defenses for life. It is considered a “repair and replace” strategy because doctors extract stem cells from bone marrow, then soak the cells with viruses to transfer a correct copy of the ADA gene.

Strimvelis was initially developed in Milan, Itlay at the San Raffaele Telethon Institute for Gene Therapy, but pharmaceutical giant GlaxoSmithKline purchased the rights to the procedure in 2010. The price tag for the one-time treatment will be $665,000. This makes it one of the most expensive single procedures in all of medicine, but is considered pennies compared to the cost of the established method of treating the disease.

GSK sells $30 billion is drug each year, so revenue from the treatment is not the bottom line. Rather, the British company hopes to master gene therapy technology, including virus manufacturing. Sven Kili, the executive of gene therapy development at GSK stated, "If we can first make products that change lives, then we can develop them into things that affect more people. We believe gene therapy is an area of important future growth; we don’t want to rush or cut corners."

Read more: https://www.technologyreview.com/s/602113/gene-therapy-cure-has-money-back-guarantee/

https://www.technologyreview.com/s/601390/gene-therapys-first-out-and-out-cure-is-here/

Lizards that Bleed Green????

 Zachary Rodriguez is the scientist who discovered that the Prasinohaema lizards of New Guinea have what as he describes lime green blood. usually this color blood signifies that the izard has a toxic substance called biliverdin. In humans a dosage of biliverdin over 50 macromolecules per liter results in jaundice. At first thought, researchers assumed that the green blood was a defense mechanism for when the predator took its first bite it assumed the blood was toxic, however this is not the case. There is no exact answer at the moment but it ideas such as the biliverdin reducing the  susceptibility to malaria or to cell damage from the sun’s ultraviolet rays, or even adding some extra camouflage for life in trees, have been tossed around.

It is truly crazy the way the world and its creatures work. One of the best parts about science is finding and discovering new and exciting creatures. This green blooded lizard won't just be in the next marvel film but definitely new bio text books to come! 

https://www.sciencenews.org/article/these-lizards-bleed-green?tgt=nr

Environmental Impacts on Fertility

Declining sperm quality has been identified in 5 separate breeds of dogs.  The dogs tested are from a center in England that breeds, raises and trains dogs for as service animals over a 26 year period.  This allowed for a fairly controlled population of subjects compared to other possible studies.  During this time, sperm motility has declined 30% in all the breeds.

The dogs who share our homes are exposed to similar contaminants as we are,” said Richard G. Lea, an associate professor of reproductive biology at the School of Veterinary Medicine and Science at the University of Nottingham. “So the dog is a sentinel for human exposure,” added Dr. Lea, the study’s principal investigator.

The most frightening part is that the testicular tissue of the dogs was tested and concentrations of chemicals that had been common in electrical transformers and paint were located.  The environment that the dogs are living in is the same that the human race is.  For 70 years there has been a studied decline in human sperm quality along with slight increases in rates of testicular cancer and genital tract abnormalities.  There is not a direct correlation between the two, but the fact that they are both declining has sparked the interest in scientists even further.

http://www.nature.com/articles/srep31281

Attempts at Saving the Vaquita

The effects that the fishing industry has on various species in the ocean has been in the news for years.  The vaquita is a tiny porpoise whose population has dwindled to around 60 individuals mostly due to becoming entangled in gillnets and drowning.  Scientists are considering taking action in an attempt to intervene to assist in growing the population again.  Capturing a few to breed in captivity and release back into the wild is an option, though not a fool proof one.

“I don’t like this idea at all,” says Omar Vidal, director general of the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) Mexico in Mexico City. “The risk of killing a vaquita while catching them is very high. With only 50 or 60 animals left, we can’t play with that.”

Even if scientists are able to successfully capture and transport the vaquitas, there is no guarantee they would reproduce in captivity.  So all of the risk could be for nothing.  While those involved debate on if this plan is the best plan of action or not, the gillnets are still impacting the species.  Another factor is fishermen poaching another fish that coincides closely with the vaquita habitat.  Though the Mexican government has banned the gillnets from the area, the poachers still remain a threat to the species.

http://www.iucn-csg.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/03/CIRVA-7-Final-Report.pdf

Ability for a Smoother Horseback Ride is from a Mutation

The Vikings may be the ones to thank for the ability to have an easier ride while horseback riding.  Scientists have traced the event to around 850-900 C.E. when the Vikings had possibly brought horses from the UK to Iceland.  The horses were bred in Iceland and then spread throughout Europe.  This information comes from the mutation detected in the DMRT3 gene.

Scientists first detected a mutation in the gene DMRT3, which influences limb movements, in all ambling horses in 2012, but they weren’t sure how it changed the horses’ gait.

 It is possible that the mutation actually effects the developing spinal cord in a way that allows longer strides to occur giving the horses their 4 beat rhythm.

http://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(16)30752-7

Human Chimeras

http://www.livescience.com/55684-human-chimeras.html

Recently, researchers have come under fire for their ideas of creating human-animal hybrids, or as they can be called, Chimeras. A chimera is any single organism that contains the cells of two or more individuals. While the idea of introducing cells from an animal into a human may seem extreme, there are certain instances where chimeras occur naturally.

While not the human-animal hybrid researchers are trying to create, thees chimeras involve humans containing the cells of other humans. This can occur if a mother absorbs cells from her fetus, a twin absorbs the other in the whom, or even from a bone marrow transplant.

DNA in samples of Ocean Water

Now with the use of new technology only small amounts of water are needed to run tests for the DNA of any target species. For example, the rare sawfish (pictured below) can have its location be identified by testing the sample of only some water. The test is called an eDNA test and is making waves in the area of natural sciences. Professor Colin Simpfendorfer who created this method says this can replace older methods like fish surveying which is time consuming and expensive.

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/08/160809095011.htm

Rio 2016: Genetically Modified Athletes?

Officials from the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) will roll out a brand new, previously unannounced form of drug testing for the international athletes competing at the Summer Olympic Games. In the past, the WADA has tested athletes in search of synthetic chemicals and hormones that would boost the athlete's performance in the arena. However, the newest form of "cheating" may come from within the athlete's own body.

The WADA test will identify if an athlete has artificially manipulated their genetic material through a process called gene doping. While there is zero previous evidence that gene doping is even happening, it makes sense for WADA to try to get out in front of the activity. Typically, the WADA is playing catch-up from the time a new steroid or performance-enhancing drug is created until a reliable and accurate test can be created and effectively administered. 

In 1989, a synthetic version of the blood-boosting hormone erythropoietin (EPO) was created to combat anemia in chemotherapy patients. However, endurance athletes quickly realized the drug would enhance their red blood cell count, drastically improving their on-course performance. In the decade that followed, cyclists, cross-country skiers and other elite athletes injected EPO without any means from the WADA to combat its rampant use. 

Today, the greatest potential threat to the integrity of sport comes from inside the human body. Typically, human kidneys produce EPO when the blood’s oxygen supply is running low, like during a marathon. The hormone then triggers the production of more oxygen-carrying red blood cells. Hypothetically, someone could insert genes into their DNA that would synthesize more EPO than a body’s normal ability.

The test for gene doping was developed by a molecular biologist at Australia’s National Measurement Institute and has two parts: One checks for the virus a scientist would use to deliver the new DNA to the body, and the second part sequences a person’s EPO genes. A normal stretch of DNA has sequences of introns between the exon genes that produce the EPO protein. An artificial DNA sequence has all the EPO genes right next to each other, with no introns separating them.

“We feel there’s a great risk this novel technology will be used, so we are being proactive for the first time.” says Carl Johan Sundberg, an exercise physiologist at the Karolinska Institute in Sweden who reviewed the new test for WADA. 

Read more: http://www.wired.com/2016/07/olympic-drug-cops-will-scan-genetically-modified-athletes/

http://futurism.com/olympic-doping-authorities-worried-gene-therapy-may-be-the-new-drug-of-choice-at-rio/

15,000 Tree Species Found in the Amazon Rainforest

Scientists have had the goal of discovering 15,000 species of tress in the Amazon rain forest for 300 years. A new study reports that the explorers have found 11,676 tree species. A team of ecologists have published what they call a list of every known tree species in the amazon from more than 500,000 digitalized samples taken of fruits, leaves, and flowers. The team of scientists gathered thousands of digital records from museums. The oldest same was from 1707 and the latest was from 2015. They compiled the first catalog of tree species in the Amazon.

The catalog is not throughly put together, but the team explains that they wanted it to be tat way so other scientists can contribute their work to it. This is the best way to pull together 300 years worth of research into one simple tool that anyone who is curious about the trees in the Amazon can use.

A bonus to the catalog is that it proves the teams claim that there are in fact almost 16,000 tree species in the Amazon. The other 4,000 species are hiding in a museum or in the Amazon waiting to be discovered as well.

http://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/13/science/amazon-tree-species-inventory.html?_r=0

http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/after-300-years-collecting-ecologist-finally-make-list-amazons-12000-trees-180959815/?no-ist

Humming To Snails

The common periwinkle is a gastropod found from the Bay of Fundy to New Jersey, and extending to Europe. They are about the size of a hershey kiss and eat the algae and moss that are on rocks. There are many tales that humming to the snail will make it emerge from its shell. The theories are that the vibration of the hum entices the snail to come out or that it is relaxing for the snail. Research has been attempted to explore this idea. The results from the research have been inconclusive, and the only clear thing at the moment is to believe that patience is the only key to making a snail emerge from its shell.

Scientists Find Genes That Let These Bees Reproduce Without Males

The female African South honey bees can reproduce asexually. Normally, honey bees reproduce sexually but studies have shown that in a small area in the Fynbos Ecoregion, the female will leave their homes to take control of other colonies. The female Cape honey bees will produces offsprings of her own and begin to control of the hive as a queen bee or become worker bees within those colonies. Scientist have tested the genomes between the Cape honey bees and the typical honey bees and explained that African South bees produces only female offspring when they reproduces asexually. They farther explained that this occurs because without the male chromosome presented during meiosis then only the XX chromosome appears. 





http://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/10/science/bees-asexual-south-africa.html

http://www.techtimes.com/articles/164161/20160611/special-genes-allow-parasitic-bees-to-reproduce-even-without-males.htm

Starving Spiders

The spider species, Anelosimus eximius, lives in South America in large colonies. Some of these colonies consist of tens of thousands! Their colonies grow to be so large because the spiders will remain in the nest in which they were born from one generation to the next. These species nest together, create a web together, and capture their prey together. The problem comes when the colonies become too large because these spiders eventually run out of food. The lack of food leads to massive die-offs. The problem also arises when the spiders capture prey that is far too big for any one spider to feed on. This overshare of food is a danger to the species. Researchers have found that about 21% of these colonies go extinct every generation. 

Furthering Stem Cells

As stem cells develope they turn into different cells. Scientist have begun the process of looking into what makes the stem cells turn into such a wide range of different cells in the body. A new study shows that a protein called OCT4 plays a vital role in determing what branch of cells the stem cell will ultimately become. This could help scientists to find a way to make specific cells out of stem cells and that could lead to the ability to fight new deseases and rehab new injuries that we couldn't rehab before. The sky is the limit for stem cells as most scientists belive they have a lot of potential in aiding the fight against new problems that we could not address before.























Picture from https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/08/160804140503.htm

Using Carbon Dioxide for Good !

Cornell University is currently working on a technology that will capture carbon dioxide before it gets into the atmosphere. A group of scientists proposed making a call that would use aluminum as an anode and carbon dioxide paired with oxygen as a cathode. The reaction between the cathode and anode would create electricity while also making a oxalate byproduct.

The group reported that their electrochemical cell generated 13 ampere hours per gram of porous carbon (as the cathode) at a discharge potential of around 1.4 volts. The energy produced by the cell is comparable to that produced by the highest energy-density battery systems.

This technology could do great things, such as reducing the carbon footprint and increasing natural ways to make more electricity. These types of technologies are even attempted to be used in vehicles!

 http://www.worldcoal.org/reducing-co2-emissions/carbon-capture-use-storage

Rats give clues about alcoholism

In a study being conducted since 1980', rats at Indiana University School of Medicine have been given the choice between pure water or water mixed with 10% ethanol. Over 40 generations the researchers have selected the rats that voluntarily chose to drink the alcohol water and specifically bred them to create "heavy drinker rats" these rats drink the equivalent of 25 human beers a day. They then compared the genes of the alcoholic rat to the genes of the non alcoholic rat and what they saw was truly a difference. Before this study scientist thought that alcoholism came from inserting altered forms of genes that produce faulty proteins.

 I personally feel like alcoholism is usually overlooked and seen as a disease, but it is definitely a genetic predisposition which can and can not come out in future generations. If scientist can pinpoint the genetics that create alcoholism maybe they can inform people of whether or not they are genetically wired to potentially have alcoholism.

https://www.sciencenews.org/article/rats-offer-clues-biology-alcoholism?tgt=nr

The Kankuamo Marquezi Species

Other than just being huge and scary spiders, Tarantulas have another intimidating tactic. Tarantulas know how to fight. Many of these arachnids defend themselves by javelin-like hairs from their abdomens at potential threats. However, a new species of tarantulas have a different tactic. The Kankuamo Marquezi was found in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountain range in Columbia. They are not afraid to get up close to their attackers. They use butt bristles, or urticating hairs, to stab their foes. These hairs are different from the ones surrounding their body. These hairs have a penetrating tip that allows the hair to embed into the skin or mucous membranes and cause irritation. Scientists have previously identified six different types of urticating hairs on tarantulas. The Kankuamo Marquezi adds a seventh. Their hairs are so different that not only are they classified as a different species, however, it is also classified as a new genus as well.  



http://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/30/science/tarantula-colombia-kankuamo-marquezi.html?rref=collection%2Fcolumn%2Ftrilobites&action=click&contentCollection=science&region=stream&module=stream_unit&version=latest&contentPlacement=31&pgtype=collection

http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/06/new-tarantula-spider-species-colombia-gabriel-garcia-marquez-animals/

Algae Reports and Weather Forecasts Together?

On a Long Island cable channel, Bill Korbel offers gives his meteorology forecast as well as an outlook report for toxic algae. Usually, meteorologists don't give algae reports as part of their standard weather forecast. Korbel even admitted it was not something he learned when he was going to school. However, scientists say that in the near future, algae reports could become as common as weather forecasts.

High toxic algal blooms can trigger serious health effects. Two years ago residents in Ohio were banned from drinking tap water when toxic algae bloomed in Lake Erie and California residents were advised not to eat crabs contaminated with toxic algae. Sophisticated sensors can be deployed to give warnings when toxic algae levels are dangerously high.

In 2014, Congress reauthorized the Harmful Algal Bloom and Hypoxia Research and Control Act originally passed in 1998. The problem is the act did not provide funding only signaled the need for research and the funding that would be used to conduct the research decreased by 45% from five years ago. This means less money for shorelines being monitored for algae.

Scientists say a total of 20 sensors are needed around the country at a cost of seven million dollars. The only sensors in use right now for an extended period of time are in the Gulf of Mexico. However, funding is needed not only for sensors but also for research to understand more about the algal bloom and the health effects they have.

Obama's 2016 fiscal year budget called for $13 million for research pertaining to harmful agal blooms. Still, algal blooms are flourishing all over the country at such a rapid rate that, money is not enough.

It would literally be a lifesaver to know about algal bloom reports.

http://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/19/science/a-dreaded-forecast-for-our-times-algae-and-lots-of-it.html

http://www.noaa.gov/what-is-harmful-algal-bloom

Thinking Hard or Hardly Thinking?

Have you ever been stuck on a problem in math, for what felt like ages, only to feel dumbfounded when you finally get the answer? It has happened to me more than once. And I bet it has happened to you as well. That moment when you go from "...what in the hell?' to "EUREKA!!" is such an exciting feeling. Scientists have historically struggled to deconstruct an accurate mental procedure that occurs in the brain when figuring out the problem. Using an innovative combination of brain-imaging analysis, researchers have captured four fleeting stages of creative thinking in math. John R. Anderson, a professor of psychology and computer science in Carnegie Mellon University, and his team demonstrated a method for reconstructing how the brain moves from understanding a problem to solving, and the time it takes for each stage. Encoding (downloading), planning (strategizing), solving (performing the math), and responding (typing out the answer) are the four stages found in the imaging analysis. This analysis can help us further comprehend the mind of the student. It can also give professors an insight when creating their curriculum.  

http://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/29/science/brain-scans-math.html?rref=collection%2Fcolumn%2Ftrilobites&action=click&contentCollection=science&region=stream&module=stream_unit&version=latest&contentPlacement=10&pgtype=collection

http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-are-we-thinking-when/

Smiling Monkeys

There has been research conducted at Kyoto University about 10 years ago that found that chimpanzee infants display spontaneous smiles. When humans and chimps sleep they oftentimes have facial expressions that resemble smiles. Kyoto University believes this was the evolutionary origin of real smiles. They have observed macaque infants and compared their spontaneous smiles to those of the humans. They both happened during irregular REM sleep and they showed lop-sided smiles compared to symmetrical, complete smiles. The research team has interpreted that these spontaneous smiles lead to the development of the cheek muscles that enable humans, chimpanzees, and monkeys to produce laughs and smiles. Research is still in the works and now they are questioning if these smiles are special to monkeys and primates.

Homecoming For Hellbenders

Eastern Hellbender is the largest salamander in North America. Unfortunately, in the past 3 decades their species has declined 82%. This huge decline was due to the of their habitats, the production of dams, and pollution. The problem for the species isn't the ability for the adults to survive; it is the difficulty of the larvae to mature into adulthood. However, 255 of the of the adult salamanders will be released into streams in Ohio, in hopes to restore their population. The Columbus Zoo and Aquarium are making it their mission to attempt to restore the Hellbender population by hopefully releasing these salamanders into the wild annually. Their first release is supposed to begin in the second week of August.

The Snowy Egrets Success Story

The is nothing as white or as graceful as the Snowy Egret. It's a small heron that can be found along coastal bays and inlets. One can be mesmerized by the lovely way it can hunt a school of fish. The elegant bird starts its hunt as a motionless statue for minutes, only a shifting eye and frequent head angle reveal that the bird is conscious. It darts it's bill into the water, throws its head back and swallows its prey.

The 24 inch tall bird has jet black legs and a black bill to match. The yellow patch by its eyes gives way to the orange yellow feet which the bird uses as hunting tools. The Snowy egret is an example of an environmental success story.

The egret uses its long, white, virginal feathers it grows each spring to impress potential mates. However, their beauty almost cost them their lives. Their feathers were highly desired for women hat decorations at the turn of the 20th century. At one point, Snowy Egret feathers were worth more per ounce than gold. The birds were slaughtered almost to extinction.

The egrets story inspired the establishment of the Migratory Bird Treaty Act which is celebrating its 100th anniversary this year. The Act protected the bird from near extinction and now is thriving along the coastlines of New York beaches where they spend the summer.

They nest on remote islands where they obtain their elegant fathers each spring. During the summer when the birds breed and rear young, they lose their fine feathers and migrate for miles down to florida, the Caribbean and even South America.

http://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/07/nyregion/snowy-egrets-once-fashion-victims-always-elegant-predators.html

https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Snowy_Egret/id

Asthma in Amish?!

In a new study published by the New England Journal of Medicine, Amish and Hutterite children were tested for Asthma. Researchers specifically chose these lifestyles because of their similar nature. However there is one difference, both homes of the Amish and Hutterite are kept immaculate but, Amish children do work and play in the barns with the animals which are close to their homes. On the other hand the Hutterite children's barns are far away from their homes and barely go into the barns. The study tested 30 of each children and the results were crazy! None of the Amish children had asthma but 6 out of the 30 Hutterite children did! Researchers than took the dust from each of the barns and after they analyzed the dust and found that the amish dust had a ton of bacteria where as the Hutterite dust was not. The dust gave the amish children neutrophils  (white blood cells that are the immune system’s paramedics). Finally they put mice in the two different kinds of dust and well the results were replicated from the original findings!

Personally having asthma, it makes me wonder if my environment as a child was too clean (who thought that was possible). It will be really awesome to see what researchers in the medical field will be able to learn from this possibly creating an anti-asthma treatment for children in generations to come!

http://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/04/health/dust-asthma-children.html?_r=0

Growing Greens Vertically is the New Trend in Farming

Dan Albert has an unusual farm. There are no tractors, no harm houses, not even soil or sunlight. Albert owns Farmbox Greens. It's in a two car garage behind his Seattle home where he grows microgreens in vertically stacked trays beneath LED lights by the process of hydroponics. Microgreens can go from seed to harvest in as little as two weeks. This makes Albert's prices hard to beat by produce delivered from far away. His business is so successful (making $500,000 in 2014), he was able to quit his job and work at Farmbox Greens full-time selling his greens to restaurants and grocery stores.

City-Hydro is another LED light vertical farm that was successful. Larry and Zhanna Hountz built their farm in the spare bedroom of their three story row house in Baltimore. They grew 80 species of greens and sold them to a dozen restaurants. Their farm profited $120,000.

The up side of vertical farming is it doesn't use chemical pesticides and far less water and fertilizer compared to traditional farms. It also produces 20 times more greens per square unit than outdoor farming. The down side is all the LED lights can drive the cost of energy through the roof.

Green spirit farms in Michigan grows leafy greens, such as lettuce, in a 420,000 space. It is also a vertical farm that uses "frequency-specific" induction lights. The farm produces 5,000 pounds of greens each month with annual sales totaling to over $1 million.

Edenworks in Brooklyn uses an aquaponic system to farm greens and fish at the same time. The company, which is non-profit, has received $1.5 million in funding and intends to build a 10,000 square foot vertical farm in a warehouse in Brooklyn. It is predicted to produce 130,000 pounds of leafy greens and 50,000 pound of fish annually.

Many people have tried to make this type of business work but only few (such as the ones listed above) have been successful. Vertical hydroponic farms are flourishing all over the country and it could be the future of farming.

http://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/30/business/smallbusiness/growing-greens-in-the-spare-room-as-vertical-farm-start-ups-flourish.html

http://www.simplyhydro.com/whatis.htm

The Drawbacks of Discovering Fire

The discovery of fire has always been looked at as such an amazing innovation. It was used for, warmth, light, and protection. It has been used for cooking and to keep the evenings and nights longer. It gave growth to more socializing. Although this discovery brought many benefits, it also brought some cons. Occasionally, the smoke from the fire burned eyes and seared lungs. Most of the food was coated with char, which could have led to increased risk for cancer. Recently, scientists have identified a genetic mutation in modern humans that allows certain toxins, included those found in smoke, to be metabolized at a safe rate. The same genetic sequence was not found in other primates. Researchers believe that the mutation arose in response to breathing in smoke toxins. A speculation from Gary Perdew, a professor of toxicology at Penn State, states that having this mutation gave humans the edge over Neanderthals. That it might have been one way that modern humans inured some adverse effects from fire, while other species did not. One example is the study of acrylamide, a compound formed in foods during baking, frying or other high temperature cooking. When given to lab animals in high dosages, it led to cancer. However, human studies have failed to link dietary acrylamide to cancer. Dr. Tanaka, a biologist in the University of New South Wales in Australia, believed that fire helped spread airborne diseases such as tuberculosis. Dr. Tanaka states that, “Fire, as a technological advantage, has been a double edged sword.”

http://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/09/science/fire-smoke-evolution-tuberculosis.html?rref=collection%2Fcolumn%2Ftrilobites&action=click&contentCollection=science&region=stream&module=stream_unit&version=latest&contentPlacement=1&pgtype=collection

http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/371/1696/20150164

Sunflowers Follow The Sun

A recent study was conducted on sunflowers, showing the plant moves with the sun, a property called helioptropism. In order for sunflowers to get the most sunlight possible, they bend to match the arc of the sun. This is with the use of their internal clock and ability to detect sunlight. This is done by the turning on and off of genes that control growth. Stacy Harmer and Hagop Atamian studied Sunflower fields, pots, and growth chambers. They stopped the potted sunflowers from chasing the sun, and notices that they grew smaller that those who moved with the sun. They determined that at night the plants stem grows on the west side in order for them to face the east. During the day, the flower's stem grows on the east to make them face the west. 

Hangovers Tied to Genetics

http://vinepair.com/articles/tequila-wasnt-responsible-for-your-hangover-your-dna-was/

A recent study performed on 4000 twins from Australia has shown that your DNA and genetic makeup influence your likelihood of getting a hangover, and the severity of that hangover. These genetic markers are also closely tied to the amount of alcohol your body craves, so now after a heavy night of drinking, just blame your parents.

Red Blood Cells can Sense Low Oxygen Levels in the Brain

A study done at the University of Rochester Medical center has shown evidence that red blood cells can sense and monitor oxygen levels within the brain. Once the red blood cells pick up this sense they can spring into action and rush into brain. Researchers tested this out on mice by depleting the oxygen supply to the brain and recording the increase in the blood flow of the red blood cells through the capillaries. This finding emphasizes the importance and large effect that blood has on the brain. In all the results will also help shed light on how interferences with blood flow to the brain can cause brain disorders.

Above is artificial capillaries in which red blood cells are flowing through. The cells are able to squeeze through the capillary much faster when there is low levels of oxygen. When there is high levels of oxygen the cells stiffen and are not as flexible to flow through the capillaries as quickly.

Surviving Elephants

Elephants are unique animals because they have the ability to learn and change their behavior, meaning they do not necessarily have to genetically change to adapt to a new environment like many other species. Scientists have recently studied both desert-dwelling and non-dessert dwelling elephants and have found that the DNA of the two was not significantly different. A historical record suggests that the Namibian elephants were able to survive drastic changes in climate and hunting pressure due to their high learning capacity and long distance migrations. These elephants hardly have any genetic differences and scientists believe it is due to their long distance migrations, large home ranges, increases in population, or the gene flow provided by the male breeding elephants breeding with different females. The scientists are advocating for the conservation of these elephants because their fight for survival is key for the future generations of elephants in the arid habitat.

The Echo Hunter helps us comprehend the Whale Evolution a bit more

A 27 million year old fossil from a species named Echovenator Sandersi, nicknamed Echo Hunter, had been found 15 years ago in South Carolina. Recently, it had been discovered that the features in its inner ear indicated that it could hear sounds too high pitched for the human ear. This species is a relative of the modern toothed whales like dolphins, porpoises, and sperm whales. Based on the Echo Hunter's skull and cranial features they were able to tell if this species could echo locate or not. By examining the inner ear, researchers found evidence of its ability to receive high frequencies. A soft tissue structure called the basilar membrane, not present on the fossil, but indicated by other parts of the ear to be of size and thickness consistent of high frequency hearing. A thick, bony part of the cochlea also provided further evidence of this ability. Toothed whales use echolocation to hunt for prey by emitting a series of high frequency chirps and navigating based on echoes. Dr Uhen believed that the development of high frequency hearing is a nice illustration of natural selection. Because of this newly discovered information, we now know that the use of navigational technique of echolocation goes back millions of years earlier in whales than previously known. 

http://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/05/science/echo-hunter-whale.html?rref=collection%2Fcolumn%2Ftrilobites&action=click&contentCollection=science&region=stream&module=stream_unit&version=latest&contentPlacement=2&pgtype=collection

http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2016-08/cp-wuh072816.php

Trials to Begin in Young Blood Antiaging Technique

This month, the first clinical trials of a longstanding antiaging theory will begin in Monterey, California. Doctors will withdraw blood plasma from young people less than 25 years of age, and inject it into relatively healthy, middle to old-age volunteers. The hope is that the young plasma will improve the memory of the older persons, as well as provide benefits to their muscles, heart, brain, and other organs.

The plasma transfusions are a new spin on an a theory called parabiosis, which was first attempted in mice in the mid-1800s. Parabiosis is a technique in which two living organisms are joined together surgically and develop single, shared physiological systems, such as a shared circulatory system. While the donors and acceptors of the new plasma transfusions will not be surgically paired, scientists are hoping to mimic the effects of pairing, and that the young plasma will slow, or even reverse the natural aging process.

The trials will transfuse roughly 1.5 liters of plasma over 2 days. Prior to the procedure and one month after, the blood of the volunteers will be assessed for more than 100 biomarkers that typically fluctuate with age, from hemoglobin level to inflammation markers. While the trials will not include a placebo portion of the experiment, doctors state that the before and after measurements will serve as the control for each person.

Read more: http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/08/young-blood-antiaging-trial-raises-questions

Why Do We Inherit Mitochondrial DNA Only From Our Mothers?

We contain about 37 coding DNA within the mitochondria which has been proven we only inherit them from our mother. Study's has also shown that when inheriting the mitochondrial DNA from our father there is an occurrence of a mutation or may lead to embryonic death. There are some theories on why this may occur, for example researchers explained that when sperm is competing for the egg cell they tend to use a lot of energy and over work themselves, eliminate the DNA from the sperm and leading to the mutation. 

http://mobile.nytimes.com/2016/06/24/science/mitochondrial-dna-mothers.html

http://www.futurity.org/mothers-curse-mitochondria-1217112-2/

The Beautiful Life of the Leopard Slug

The Leopard slug has migrated to North America from Europe and much to the dismay of gardeners and squeamish 5 year olds they can be found anywhere from underneath boards and rocks to inside flower pots. The Leopard slug is unusually slimy with an overall tawny brown, a light "sole" and attractively spotted and streaked with dark brown. It is as beautiful as a common garden pest could possibly be.

The Leopard slug is claimed to have an unusually wild sex life. The slugs do not have distinct genders and are hermaphrodites, meaning, more likely than not both will leave the sex encounter pregnant. They will then find a dark, damp spot and deposit about 200 large. clear eggs.

What is interesting about Leopard slug mating is one member of the pair will overhang on a ledge or branch on a long bungee made of their own slime. The pair will intertwine hanging on the mucus and exchange their spermatophores. Fortunately, this ritual is performed exclusively after dark.

Slugs are gastropods and are distantly related to squids, oysters and snails. Did you know Leopard slugs do have a shell? It is hidden each one's mantle and looks like a small fold of skin or a fingernail, but is in fact a vestigial shell. If you stumble upon a Leopard slug on the streets of New York City are brave enough to squeeze it gently, you can feel the evolutionary evidence for yourself.

http://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/24/nyregion/the-double-life-of-the-slimy-acrobatic-leopard-slug.html?_r=0

http://www.molluscs.at/gastropoda/terrestrial.html?/gastropoda/terrestrial/limax.html

"Junk DNA" Responsible for Backbone Formation

Since the 1960s, scientists have researched non-coding portions of DNA within human and animal genomes. These portions, commonly called "junk DNA," are sections of the DNA sequence that are not responsible for the construction of the proteins that compose a living animal. As a result, many researchers believed the non-coding segments were left-over genetic debris from millions of years of evolution. In the last decade, the "junk" has been found to be anything but, as scientists think it could play an important role in evolution, such as body shape.

Recently, researchers led by developmental biologist Moises Mallo of the Gulbenkian Institute of Science in Oeiras, Portugal have examined mutant mice bred by the institute that contain 24 pairs of ribs, compared to the 13 pairs in normal mice. This mutation was traced back to the deactivation of the GDF11 junk gene, which controls another gene - OCT4 - that regulates stem cell development into many different cell types.

An x-ray of Moises Mallo's mice containing extra ribs.

Snakes, which also have both genes, naturally have dozens of ribs along the length of their spine. Mallo and his team spliced non-coding sections of snake DNA into normal mouse embryos near the OCT4 gene to see if the snake GDF11 would cause a prolonged growth spurt in the embryo. The team found that the embryos grew large amounts of additional spinal cord, implying that the junk DNA does indeed play a role in body shape regulation of animals.

Developmental biologist Valerie Wilson of the University of Edinburgh commented on the junk DNA:

“There’s an immense amount of variation in body length across vertebrates, but within species the number of ribs and so forth stays almost exactly the same. There must be some ways to alter the expression of those [genes] regulating evolution to generate this massive amount of variation that we see across the vertebrates.”

Read more: http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/08/junk-dna-tells-mice-and-snakes-how-grow-backbone

 

Endangered Caspian Seals

Recently, scientists have been doing research on Caspian seals, one of the world's endangered seal species. They discovered where, when, and how far they travel when they migrate and how they find food to eat. These seals like to separate into three groups when traveling: one in the shallow waters of the Caspian sea, another in the deep water off of Iran, and the final group on the edge of water areas in the north. The scientists on this project are still trying to figure out why some prefer longer distances over others. This information provides a lot of help for conservation efforts. The data can help identify the key areas that seals like to reside in which will provide useful when the humans are planning their activities such as building oil and gas developments. The scientists are currently using this information to get these species off of the endangered list. 

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/08/160803111806.htm

Can a species that outlived dinosaurs, outlast a dam?

A fish species have outlasted dinosaurs are now being threatened to extinction by a dam in Montana. This "dinosaur fish" is called the pallid sturgeon. After millions of years of survival, there are now only 125 of this endangered species. These fish were once abundant along the Missouri river. This flowed east from Montana and south until it empties into the Mississippi river in Missouri. Pallid Sturgeons would swim up to spawn and their fertilized eggs developed as they drifted down the river. The Intake Diversion Dam in Montana provides water up to 55,000 acres of farmland. However, because of this dam, the sturgeons can't travel far enough up the fragmented rivers to ensure their eggs will make it to a healthy place to develop. They eggs get trapped in reservoirs that include a lot of sediment, bacteria, and very little oxygen. They suffocate and die there. One proposal that was brought up was to replace the Intake Diversion Dam with a new one and create a bypass channel to let the dinosaur fish get passed the dam. However, it was risky to rely on the sturgeons to navigate on their own. A better proposal was to get rid of the damn and replace it with irrigation pumps. It will cost more money but it has a higher rate of success.    




http://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/25/science/pallid-sturgeon-montana-yellowstone-river.html?rref=collection%2Fcolumn%2Ftrilobites&action=click&contentCollection=science&region=stream&module=stream_unit&version=latest&contentPlacement=10&pgtype=collection


https://www.fws.gov/Midwest/endangered/fishes/PallidSturgeon/index.html

Dolly the Sheep’s Fellow Clones, Enjoying Their Golden Years

Dolly the sheep was used for the study of cloning animals and whether if cloned animal would age prematurely. Scientists took a single adult cell, implanted into an egg cell where its own DNA was removed, and created an exact replica of its donor. Researchers explained that there were no abnormal deficiencies with the sheeps that were cloned but some appeared to show signs of osteoarthritis which Dolly was diagnosed with. Scientist declared that based on the new research cloning animals does not lead to the idea of premature aging.  

http://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/27/science/dolly-the-sheep-clones.html?rref=collection%2Fsectioncollection%2Fscience&action=click&contentCollection=science&region=stream&module=stream_unit&version=latest&contentPlacement=19&pgtype=sectionfront

https://sites.psu.edu/maddieleap16/2016/07/27/dollys-fellow-clones-enjoying-the-golden-years/

Not Just a Weed: Tires Made from Dandelions

Using thorough genome analysis and precision breeding, a pair of German scientists have doubled the amount of natural rubber produced by a specific strain of dandelion, a common and abundant weed. Researchers from the Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology IME have successfully identified a cost-effective and eco-friendly alternative to the natural rubber tree, which has no synthetic replacement.

The rubber tree, or Hevea brasiliensis, is almost exclusively grown in the sub-tropical regions of Southeast Asia, and takes between 5-7 years to deliver its' first harvest. As global demand for rubber has grown, acres of precious rainforest have been converted into agricultural land.

Dandelions, on the other hand, are incredibly resilient, can grow in moderate climates, and can survive in soil unfit for the cultivation of food and feed crops. Additionally, they grow annually, so their rubber can be harvested on a more regular basis, consistent with the fluctuations of the rubber market.

The strain of dandelion, called the Russian dandelion, is cheaper and more sustainable than the natural rubber tree, however, it will not completely replace the traditional method of making rubber. To do so would require a plot of land the size of Austria completely dedicated to the cultivation of dandelions.

Tire company Continental has already created a prototype using the rubber, and their researcher, Dr. Carla Recker states, "the dandelion natural rubber has ideal material properties," and that "the tires are equivalent to those made from Hevea natural rubber."

Read more at: http://phys.org/news/2015-06-natural-rubber-dandelions.html#jCp

A Catalyst that Aided in the Extinction of the Mammoths

About 6,000 years ago there was a tiny island, called St. Paul Island, in the middle of the Bering Sea. It was a hundred miles away from the mainland. It only harbored a few species, including arctic foxes and woolly mammoths. One of the world's last populations of woolly mammoths have comfortably living in that are for for a few thousand years. They had a surplus of food, water, and lack of predators since humans got there at the 18th century. At this time there were drastic climate change that caused the sea levels to rise. This shrunk the land and herd size. Another negative effect was that because the climate was dry, there was less rainfall. This decreased lake levels. It ultimately decreased freshwater for the mammoths. Thus making drinking water more scarce. The rise of the sea also brought in more saltwater. This displaced the freshwater as well. Lack of freshwater was not the main cause of their extinction; however, it did play an indirect role in pushing the mammoths towards extinction.



http://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/02/science/mammoths-extinction-saint-paul-island-alaska.html?rref=collection%2Fcolumn%2Ftrilobites

http://www.nationalgeographic.com.au/history/why-did-the-woolly-mammoth-die-out.aspx

Rare Whale Discovered in Pacific

Scientists have discovered a rare new whale species within the waters stretching from Japan to Aleutian islands in Alaska. The new discovery shows just how much of the ocean is still yet to be explored and studied by humans. The new species which has not yet be named is approximately twenty four feet long as an adult. It has a slight different head shape and location of its dorsal fin as a Baird whale or the Arnoux beaked whale which are all in the genus and closely related. 

The new found whale has not been seen or found alive. All of the specimens have either washed ashore or been caught by Japanese fishermen. Further research needs to be done to find a common ancestor between the rare whale and the Arnoux beaked whale. Now that the whale has been discovered scientist can work together to protect it.

Hellbender Salamanders Will Thrive Once Again

The Eastern Hellbender is the largest salamander in North America and are a threatened species. Unfortunetly, they are not very pretty looking. They have mucus covered skin, short legs, and beady eyes. Members of the Columbus Zoo and Aquarium reared 255 salamanders from eggs to young adults and will be released into the streams of Ohio during the second week of August in an attempt to restore their threatened populations.

The eastern hellbenders used to be abundent throughout the streams of the Appalachian Mountains, from New York to Missouri, down to Georgia. However, for the past half century, habitat loss, dams and pollution have been diminishing the population which landed them on the species list of special concern in 1983. Scientists have noticed in the past three decades, the species has declined 82% in Ohio. They are worried the species won't survive in the wild because they are struggling to reproduce. What is making the struggle more difficult is water pollution. Siltation is separating larvae from their homes making it difficult for them to develop into adult salamanders.

The members of the project in Ohio hope to release salamanders into the wild annually in an effort the scratch the species of the species of special concern list.

http://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/02/science/hellbenders-salamanders.html?rref=collection%2Fsectioncollection%2Fearth&action=click&contentCollection=earth&region=stream&module=stream_unit&version=latest&contentPlacement=1&pgtype=sectionfront

http://www.nature.org/newsfeatures/specialfeatures/animals/amphibians/hellbender-salamander-facts.xml

Until recently the well known Zika virus was only being contracted (directly from mosquito's) outside of the United States.Zika is spread mostly by the bite of an infected Aedes species mosquito. Unfortunately this is not the case anymore. The amount of people bite by Zika carrying mosquito's has surged in the last couple of weeks in Miami, Florida. The total rate of infection now at an astounding 14 people. Despite Miami's efforts to spray insecticides the mosquito's do not seem to be dying, this could be because of breeding in obscure places or not being harmed by the type of insecticide used.

picture from : http://wncn.com/2016/02/19/1st-case-of-zika-virus-confirmed-in-nc/

Fortunately for Florida, Zika unlike west nile does not house the disease in animals. Zika is a very real threat to the health and well being of future generations. Unfortunately i believe that we do not even know the extent to which Zika effects fetus' as well as the mother and therefore scientist and doctors truly need to devote time to stopping this virus from spreading even more.

https://www.sciencenews.org/blog/science-ticker/zika-carrying-mosquitoes-eluding-control-efforts-miami

Birds and Humans Working Together for Honey

Researchers have discovered that African hunter-gatherers are receiving a helping hand in the quest for honey.  Greater Honeyguides not only respond to human calls from various geographical groups but assist them in locating honey-rich bees nests.  The birds receive the wax from the bees' nests as a reward for helping the humans.  This relationship works perfectly as the humans need a better way of tracking down the nests and the birds need access to the wax.

"The new study provides the first solid evidence of two-way, collaborative communication between humans and a nonhuman animal in the wild."

The humans have various calls for the birds, including a loud trill followed by a grunt to a whistling sound.  The birds respond with a chattering sound announcing their arrival.  The current question at hand is how this relationship came to be.  It is possible that this hunting relationship has been going on for over 1 million years.  Researchers aim to learn if this behavior is observed and learned by young Greater Honeyguides from their parents.

http://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/how-a-wild-bird-leads-people-to-honey

Nobel Laureates Take a Stand for GMOs

110 of the world's 300 living Nobel Laureates recently signed a letter directed at the global NGO Greenpeace demanding that the group backdown on their stance against genetically modified organisms (GMO). The letter was prompted because Greenpeace has continually blocked the introduction of a genetically engineered (GE) strain of rice called "Golden Rice" that could vastly reduce the number of Vitamin-A deficiencies (VAD) in the developing world.

According to the World Health Organization, VAD impacts an estimated 250 million people worldwide by compromising a person's immune system, resulting in blindness or death. Its' greatest impact can be seen on the poorest people of Africa and Southeast Asia. UNICEF statistics suggest that one to two million preventable deaths occur globally each year as a result of VAD, especially among infants and children. Golden Rice contains higher levels of Vitamin-A than normal strains of rice, and could therefore help combat the deficiencies, as those most affected consume rice as the mainstay of their diet.

Nobel laureate Randy Schekman, a cell biologist at UC Berkeley stated:

“I find it surprising that groups that are very supportive of science when it comes to global climate change, or even, for the most part, in the appreciation of the value of vaccination in preventing human disease, yet can be so dismissive of the general views of scientists when it comes to something as important as the world’s agricultural future.”

Most scientists believe that gene editing in a laboratory is no different and poses no greater threat to humans than selective breeding that has gone on for centuries. Additionally, GE plants can reduce the need for pesticides on crops (among other advantages), providing health and ecological benefits.

Greenpeace responded to the letter through their Southeast Asia campaigners, countering with the argument that:

“Corporations are overhyping ‘Golden’ Rice to pave the way for global approval of other more profitable genetically engineered crops. This costly experiment has failed to produce results for the last 20 years and diverted attention from methods that already work. Rather than invest in this overpriced public relations exercise, we need to address malnutrition through a more diverse diet, equitable access to food and eco-agriculture.”

Obviously, the debate between scientists and activists over GMOs is not a new phenomenon, nor does it appear that this letter will persuade GMO opponents to end their fight.

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2016/06/29/more-than-100-nobel-laureates-take-on-greenpeace-over-gmo-stance/

The ‘Ice Bucket Challenge’ Helped Scientists Discover a New Gene Tied to A.L.S.

The Ice Bucket Challenge helped raise $115 million dollars two summers ago for the A.L.S. Association.  These fund were divided into different part such as, 67% went to the research, 20% to patient and community services, 9% to public and professional education, 2% to fund raisers, and another 2% to payment fees. Researchers have discovered a new gene by the name of NEK1 that contributed to the disease A.L.S., which shows about 3% of A.L.S. cases were affected.  According to the vice president of communication and development for the A.L.S. Association, "Treatment won't be limited".





http://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/28/health/the-ice-bucket-challenge-helped-scientists-discover-a-new-gene-tied-to-als.html?rref=collection%2Fsectioncollection%2Fscience&action=click&contentCollection=science&region=stream&module=stream_unit&version=latest&contentPlacement=5&pgtype=sectionfront

http://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/ice-bucket-challenge-funds-discovery-gene-linked-als-article-1.2726954

Kemp's Ridleys Racing Towards Survival

About 70 years ago, a Mexican Engineer named Andres Herrera came across a beach in Northeastern Mexico that were filled with Kemp's ridley sea turtles. Kemp's ridley sea turtles are the smallest, rarest, and endangered species of sea turtles. Herrera shot footage of the 40,000 turtle nesting on the beach that day. By the time scientists saw that footage, the number of Kemp's ridley sea turtles have plummeted. These turtles are targeted by poachers because of the fact that their eggs are viewed as prized aphrodisiacs. Herrera's film sparked an international movement to increase number of Kemp's ridleys. A major part of these turtle's recovery can be accredited to the National Park Service's Padre Island National Seashore. It is also know as the largest nesting site for Kemp's ridley sea turtles. Their workers work hard to collect and incubate eggs they find. When they hatch, they are released into the ocean as soon as possible. Even though they are still endangered, the number of Kemp's ridleys are fortunately increasing.




http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/07/28/science/kemps-ridleys-sea-turtles-padre-island.html?rref=collection%2Fsectioncollection%2Fscience&action=click&contentCollection=science&region=rank&module=package&version=highlights&contentPlacement=6&pgtype=sectionfront



http://www.conserveturtles.org/seaturtleinformation.php?page=kemps-ridley